Efektifitas Revegetasi Mangrove Menggunakan Alat Pemecah Ombak Dari Pohon Nibung

Sebagai negara benteng terakhir penghasil oksigen, Indonesia patut berbangga sebagai negara dengan jumlah hutan yang luas—meski laju deforestasi juga mengkhawatirkan. Lebih mengejutkan lagi, berdasarkan hasil penelitian dari CIFOR, hutan mangrove Indonesia disebut menyimpan lima kali karbon lebih banyak per hektare dibandingkan dengan hutan tropis. Belum lagi dengan produksi oksigen oleh lamun dan fitoplankton. Maka perlu dilakukan kegiatan revegetasi mangrove yang efektive dan efisien.

Selain berperan sebagai penghasil oksigen, mangrove juga sangat berperan dalam menjaga biodiversitas lingkungan, yang mana secara ekologi, mangrove berperan sebagai pendukung berbagai jasa ekosistem, termasuk produksi perikanan dan siklus unsur hara. Selain itu, secara ketahanan dan keamanan negara, secara tidak langsung mangrove juga turut berperan, di mana mangrove berfungsi untuk menjaga garis pantai agar tidak terabrasi. Dengan struktur pengakaran yang unik dan khusus untuk beradaptasi dengan kandungan salinitas dan empasan gelombang, mangrove menjadi benteng utama yang menjaga agar kawasan pesisir tidak tergerus oleh gelombang.

Namun, kenyataan seringkali pahit. Berdasarkan data FAO (Organisasi Pangan Dunia, PBB) dalam tiga dekade terakhir, Indonesia sudah kehilangan 40% mangrove, yang berarti, Indonesia memiliki kecepatan kerusakan mangrove terbesar di dunia [1]. Menurut data yang dihimpun dari Biro Humas Kementerian LHK pada tahun 2015, Indonesia memiliki ekosistem mangrove terluas di dunia sebesar 3.489.140,68 Ha, dengan panjang garis pantai sebesar 95,181 km2 serta memiliki keanekaragaman hayati yang paling tinggi. Kalau diestimasikan, luas ekosistem mangrove Indonesia setara 23% ekosistem mangrove dunia yaitu dari total luas 16.530.000 Ha. Dari luas mangrove di Indonesia, diketahui seluas 1.671.140,75 Ha dalam kondisi baik, sedangkan areal sisanya seluas 1.817.999,93 Ha sisanya dalam kondisi rusak [2].

Tingginya kerusakan mangrove di beberapa daerah di Indonesia, setidaknya berhasil membuat seluruh pihak—baik pemerintah, swasta, maupun perseorangan—bahu membahu berjuang untuk menyelamatkan mangrove yang sudah telanjur rusak. Pemerintah dengan dana APBN maupun pinjaman luar negri (terbaru pemerintah berupaya untuk menanami kawasan pesisir yang terancam abrasi. Begitu juga dengan swasta maupun kelompok penyelamat lingkungan. Kendati demikian, upaya penanaman kembali atau rehabilitasi lahan mangrove yang sudah rusak, ternyata tidak semudah dengan melakukan perusakan itu sendiri. 

Kebanyakan, penanaman mangrove yang dilakukan oleh berbagai pihak menemui kegagalan. Bibit mangrove yang ditanami, tidak banyak yang bertahan hidup sampai dewasa. Logikanya, mangrove memang mampu menahan gelombang—namun tentu saja itu adalah mangrove dewasa yang merumpun dan zonasinya lengkap serta sehat. Hal itu tentu tidak akan berlaku bagi propagul alias bibit mangrove yang baru tumbuh. Tentu saja ketika menanam bibit mangrove tanpa ada penahannya akan mengakibatkan bibit tersebut hanyut terbawa gelombang. 

Untuk mengatasi hal ini, akhirnya upaya penanaman mangrove di lahan kosong, seyogyanya membutuhkan alat pemecah ombak (APO) untuk menggantikan peran mangrove dewasa sebagai penahan dan pemecah gelombang, baik itu dengan berbagai struktur solid pemecah gelombang, seperti tetrapod, batuan karang, maupun struktur lunak menggunakan hybrid engineering. 

Pemanfaatan Nibung Sebagai Pagar APO 

Nibung telah ditetapkan sebagai flora khas identitas Provinsi Riau. Pasalnya pohon ini sudah lama menyatu dengan kehidupan masyarakat Riau. Hal ini terbukti dengan adanya beberapa tempat, yakni Tanjung Nibung, Teluk Nibung, yang mengabadikan nama tumbuhan tersebut. Selain itu keterkaitan ini tampak pula dalam pantun ataupun ungkapan tradisionalnya. Pemanfaatan nibung Sebagai Pagar APO telah diterapkan di Desa Pangkalan Jambi, Kecamatan Bukit Batu, Kabupaten Bengkalis, Riau. 

Pemanfaatan nibung sebagai APO tergolong berhasil dalam mencegah abrasi Pantai di Pangkalan Jambi, sekaligus berhasil melindungi pertumbuhan Avicennia. Keberhasilan Nibung sebagai APO dikarenakan sifat kayunya yang tahan lapuk (sampai belasan tahun), kemudian tahan terhadap empasan gelombang.

Adapun spesifikasi nibung yang sudah bisa dijadikan APO adalah nibung dengan ukuran minimal 4” (empat inci) atau dengan diameter kurang lebih 14-15 cm dan keliling sekitar 47 cm. Untuk penggunaan Nibung sebagai Pagar APO batang dibung dibelah 2,sehingga untuk satu batang Nibung dengan diameter 14 cm dapat membuat APO sepanjang 28 cm. Untuk mendapatkan Pagar APO sepanjang 1 meter dibutuhkan 4 potong kayu nibung. 

Ketinggian APO yang dipasang di Pesisir Desa Pangkalan Jambi yaitu setinggi 60 cm dari permukaan lumpur, sedangkan yang tertanam didalam lumpur sepanjang 30-40 cm. Sehingga untuk membuat Pagar APO sepanjang 1 meter dibutuhkan 4 Potong Nibung dengan Panjang Potongan 1 meter. 

Tabel. Perkiraan kebutuhan Biaya untuk pembuatan APO nibung sepanjang 1 meter:

Dengan pembangunan pagar APO dari Nibung sepanjang 100 meter disepajang bibir pantai, berpotensi menanam 1000 batang bibit Avicennia yang terjamin tinggi pertumbuhannya. Namun, tetap dibutuhkan kajian ilmiah terlebih dahulu terkait pasca pemasangan pagar APO, “Seberapa lama waktu yang dibutuhkan agar subtrat lumpur media tanam terperangkap, sehingga keberhasilan tumbuh Avicennia bisa terjamin”.

Gambar . Desain APO

Sumber : Rafi Merbamas

Adaptation Strategy Indonesia

Indonesia aims to reduce the vulnerability of its economy and community to adverse impacts of climate change that are already occurring. At the same time, Indonesia intends to prepare its national and local institutions, as well as vulnerable communities, for the possible future impacts of climate change. These preparations will include measures to increase adaptive capacity through improved planning, enhance resource management, and expand coordination to deal with inter-sectoral and cross-cutting issues.

Indonesia has established the Indonesia Climate Change Sectoral Roadmap (ICCSR 2010 - 2030) ) to set its national goals, sectoral targets, milestones and priorities for actions with regards to adaptation and mitigation of climate change for all affected sectors of the economy.

To deal with and to minimize the impact of climate change, Indonesia shall concentrateon activities based on following strategies :

1. To enhance knowledge about the hazard and impacts of climate change to the ecosystem and community’s livelihood

2. To integrate the climate change issues into the national and regional development planning

3. To integrate the climate change issues in the spatial planning of the urban, rural areas and, and small islands.

4. To build the capacity of the regional governments in formulating the strategies and climate change adaptation activities as well as to recognize, support, and facilitate smart adaptation efforts made by the community.

5. To develop and use technology to support the adaptation efforts and to improve community’s sustainability in dealing with climate change impacts, especially in order to increase food sustainability and health quality.

6. To increase the application of climate information in the activities of agriculture, fishery, health, water resources management and disaster management in order to increase community’s resilience in adapting to the climate change.

7. To formulatethe policies and protection tools for the most vulnerable groups of people who are not able to anticipate and adapt to the climate change.

Next, the priority of adaptation activity in each sector is determined in the context of facing the challenge, risk and vulnerability which is unique and distinct in each sector. The priority of adaptation activity in the sector of marine and fishery, health, agriculture, water resources and climate related disaster management is elaborated as follows:

Impact Climate Change on Disaster Incidents

Threat of drought due to El Nino phenomenon is certainly (again) a supporting factor for forest fire which has been destroying million hectates of forest area. In reference to forest fire in 1997/1998 which destroyed an area of 9.7 million hectares, the aftermath of which has exacerbated the socio economic and environmental loss at national level as well as at neighboring countries. On the other hand, an incident such as flood and landslide has also increased in intensity. This is due to extreme change in rainfall pattern such that rain distribution falls out of pattern compared with previous seasons.

The climate change has increased both natural disaster and non-natural disaster risk experienced by the community. The most likely impact of climate change in Indonesia is the increased of rainfall frequency which affects infrastructure and housing damage in a way that many people lose their homes. Natural disaster such as flood accounts for 1/3 of all disasters taking place in Indonesia dan has claimed more than 50% lives and

1/3 of total economic loss due to disaster. Climate change has also been responsible for intensifying tropical storm and the increase of of high tide frequency at the sea, which in turn enlarges the risk of death.The impacts of climate change on other disasters incindents can be observed in the following table:

Table 3 Impact of Climate Change on Disaster Management

Impact Climate Change On Water Resource

The analysis result by the Geographic Information System (GIS) describes comparatively the risk of water availability reduction in Indonesia during 2010-2015 up to 2025-2030 period as effected by the climate change. The impacts include:

1. Reduced Water Availability

There are five risk levels with the highest level of water availability reduction is found in the region of Java-Bali, particularly in several limited areas in the northern and southern parts of West Java, central and southern part of Central Java and East Java, in the capital city of North Sumatera, West Sumatera, Bengkulu and Lampung (Sumatera); Bali, NTB (Nusa Tenggara) and South Sulawesi (Sulawesi); whereas the high risk of water availability reduction is in about 75% of Java-Bali region; a minor parts in the northern, western and southern region of Sumatera; some parts of Lombok Island (Nusa Tenggara), and South Sulawesi (Sulawesi).

2. Flood

There are five levels of flood risk and flood distribution, with the highest flood risk is found very limitedly along the big rivers, particularly at the downstream in Java, eastern part of Sumatera; West, South, and East Borneo; East Sulawesi, and South Papua, whereas the high flood risk is found in the same regions of highest flood risk, only with greater area size.

3. Drought

The highest drought risk is found in general in the limited region in the central part of Java; northern part of Sumatera, and minor part in Nusa Tenggara, whereas the high drought risk is found in the greater area size in the central part of Java, Sumatera, and Nusa Tenggara;

4. Landslide

The highest landslide risk is generally found in the central and southern parts of Java-Bali, central and western parts of Sumatera, the most parts of Nusa Tenggara, and Sulawesi, and also central part of Papua, whereas the high landslide risk is found along the highest landslide risk areas as mentioned above with narrower areas.

5. Sea water intrusion

The potential impact of sea water intrusion in line with the danger and vulnerability of sea water intrusion is limited to several coastal areas, particularly in the regions of Java-Bali (Jakarta, Semarang, Denpasar) and Sumatera (Palembang and Padang). The risk of sea water intrusion is prompted by the increasingly shallow sea water surface - sea water interface at the coastal areas as well as related vulnerability including population density, land usage, water requirement and deep water drilling. Sea water intrusion causes reduction on water supply due to water quality deterioration and also land or building foundation damage.

Impact Climate Change on Agriculture Indonesia

The climate change which induces rainfall pattern change, temperature rise, and sea level rise has effects on the quantity and quality of agriculture yields, especially food crops. Farmers are finding it more difficult nowadays to determine the suitable types of plants and planting calendar due to unpredictable climate. In various areas in Indonesia, drought and flood have destroyed food crop harvests. There were many rice paddy fields destroyed or simply failed to produce due to long dry season or flood. The main impacts of climate change on agricultural areas in Indonesia are the degradation of land and water resources as well as damage on infrastructure (irragation).

For example, rainfall pattern change and extreme climate cause rice paddy fields in several regions/areas to experience drought when other areas are damaged by flood. The result of all that is the potential increase of diminishing yields from 2.4-5 percent to become more than 10 percent (R&D Ministry of Agriculture, 2008) During period of 1991 to 2006, the area of rice paddy fields suffered from drought was around 28,580 to 867,930 hectares per year and damaged area was about 4,614 to 192,331 hectares (Directorate of Plant Protection, 2007). A more widespread drought was experienced during El Nino years (Graph1)

Graph 1 the size of Rice Paddy Fields Affected by Drought and Flood in Indonesia within the period of 1991-2006

The growing threat of flood on rice paddy fields is responsible for the declining harvest area and reducing rice paddy production. Nationally, the flood vulnerability level per district in the entire territory of Indonesia can be observed from Graph 1. In Java, the size of rice paddy fields which is prone to flood/inundation reaches 1,084,217 hectares, and the extremely prone ones are 162,622 hectares, whereas in Sumatera there are 267,278 hectares, 124,465 hectares out of which are found in South Sumatera and 50.606 hectares are found in Jambi. Based on the report of the Directorate of Food Crop Protection (2007), the size of area affected by flood within 16 years period (1991-2006) fluctuated with average size of damaged area of 31,977-32,826 hectares and 5,707-138,227 hectares failed to produce.

More so towards year 2050, without any national effort to adapt to climate change, it is estimated that the strategic food crop yield will decline by 20.3-27.1% for rice paddy, 13.6% for corn, 12.4% for soybean, and 7.6% for sugar cane compared to the condition in 2006. The potential decline for the rice paddy yield is related to the declining of rice paddy field for the size of 113,003-146,473 hectares in Java, 1,314-1,345 hectares in North Sumatera, and 13,672-17,069 hectares in Sulawesi (Handoko et al. 2008). The extent of loss due to sea level rise against the rice paddy field shrinkage in the form of rice paddy production in 2050 is

Table 2 The Impact of Sea Level Rise Against the Decrease of Rice Paddy Field Coverage and Paddy/Rice Production until Year 2050

Impact Of Climate Change On Marine And Fishery In Indonesia

As a maritime country, there are certainly many marine and fishery potentials in Indonesia being threatened by sea level rise. Serious potential impacts are observed in several coastal areas of Indonesia such as northern coastal areas of Java, eastern coastal areas of Sumatera and southern coastal areas of Sulawesi. The subsidence of several small islands in the outermost borderline of Indonesia’s territory has also become a serious threat due to sea level rise and sea water intrusion into the land area. A one (1) meter rise alone can sink 405.000 hectares of coastal areas and sink 2.000 small islands located at sea level as well as the coral reef areas. Data from the Ministry of Marine Affair and Fisheries show that within the period of only 2 years, i.e 2005-2007, Indonesia has lost 24 small islands in the Archipelago.

Out of those 24 sunken islands, three islands were located within Nanggroe Aceh Darussalem (NAD) province, three islands were located in North Sumatera province, three islands were located in Papua province, five islands were located in Riau Islands province, two islands were located in West Sumatera province, one island were located in South Sulawesi province, and seven islands were near Thousand Islands, Jakarta. These incidents have affected the borderlines of Indonesia’s territories. One of the latest researches reveals that minimum 8 out of the 92 outermost small islands which form the borderline of Indonesia sea-water territory are extremely vulnerable to sea level rise. There are many parts in coastal areas, which are made more vulnerable by the erosion, which were already deterioted by human activities such as the construction of piers and ocean dams, river dams, sand and rock mining, and also mangrove deforestation.

Climate change poses vast impacts on the coastal fishermen. The change in rainfall pattern and the high sea level rise forces these fishermen in their fishing boats to face unpredictable weather and high tide. Climate change has also disrupted the livelihoods in many islands, such as the fishermen in Maluku claim that they can no longer predict the right time and location to catch fish due to the altered climate pattern. Out of the 2, 7 million fishermen in Indonesia, about 80 percent of them are small-scaled and traditional fishermen who are vulnerable to extreme climate variation at the sea. The following table shows the potential impacts of climate change on the marine and fishery sector:  

Tabel 1 Impact of Climate Change on marine and Fishery Sector

No.	Environment Physical Change	Potential Impact
1	Flooding/Inundation at coastal area	Disruption on social activities at the housing settlements
		Disruption on the operational activities of infrastructure and essential facilities at the coastal areas
2	The Increase of coastal erosion	Damage on housing settlements at the coastal areas
		Damage on the infrastructure and essential facilities at he coastal areas
3	The subsidence of small islands	Disruption on economic activities
		Damage on the infrastructure and essential facilities
4	The subsidence of the strategic outermost islands	Chaging in country’s borderline due to the subsidence of strategic outermost islands
5	Flood on rivers and estuaries	Damage on the housing settlement, infrastructure, and essential facilities at the coastal areas
6	Decrease of water debit and water quality of the rivers and estuaries (drought)	Diminishing the fresh water supply at the coastal housing settlement, essential facilities, and fish ponds
		Decreasing the productivity of estuary and fresh water ponds
7	The increase of salt intrusion on the mass of rivers and lands	Diminishing the fresh water supply at the coastal housing settlements, vital facility, and fish ponds
8	The change in primary productivity à The change in fish migration pattern à The shifting of fishing ground	Decreasing or increasing the production of catch fishery à Decreasing or increasing the capacity of fish processing unit
9	The sudden change of wind pattern at the sea	Decreasing the duration of fish catching at the sea à decreasing the production of catch fishery
		Increasing the gasoline consumption by fishermen’s boats
10	The change on diverse composition of marine life, marine habitat damage	Degradation of ocean resources and beach environment
11	The change of hydraulic regime at wetlands	Degradation of wetlands functioning as beach protection
12	The weakening of deep sea circulation flow (termohalin	Heightening the disturbance on global climate
		Affecting the human livelihood

Source : Analysis and Projection ICCSR, 2010

Climate Change In Indonesia

Indonesia as a country in the tropics made up of thousands of island experiences climate pattern changes. The impact of climate change in Indonesia’s territories is marked by the climate pattern change in which there is a shift to the start of a season. Some areas experience delayed in beginning rainy season and beginning of dry season. The change in the beginning of the season is not consistent in all areas in Indonesia. Some areas even experience early change of season. The current rainfall intensity also differs from those of previous years.

Currently, there is a tendency for larger divergence between the rainfall intensity during rainy season and the rainfall intensity during dry season, and sometimes the divergence in intensity is really extreme. The incidents of flood, drought and landslide are proofs of the climate change phenomena caused by the change of rainfall intensity in Indonesia. These incidents certainly impact the development process in the affected regions.

The other major threat as result of climate change impact in relation to Indonesia’s geographical condition is sea level rise. The threat of sea level rise and islands subsidence into the sea in the future will be made worse by the incident of high sea waves along the coastal areas, especially during the transitional season. Other review in support of above-mentioned IPCC (Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change) report states that with the sea rise of about 1 meter, it is estimated that 405.000 hectares of coastal areas including small archipelago will be flooded.

A.    The Rising of Indonesia’s Sea Level Temperature

Based on the global simulation model of A2 scenario1, the average temperature change in Indonesia in 2100 will rise 30C relative to the average temperature in 1990. Such temperature rise is still lower compared to the global temperature rise which will reach 60C in 2100. However, Indonesia’s geographical condition as an archipelago will generate more dynamic atmosphere condition in Indonesian territory which will affect the rainfall pattern change. The highest temperature change anomaly will take place in Borneo region with the potential of a more widespread drought. Furthermore, in several regions with high temperature anomaly, there is potential for increased condensation due to the areas being surrounded by the ocean. For instance, in the region of Nusa Tenggara, it is forecasted that there will be temperature anomaly of 2.7 – 2.90C in 2100 with the potential of increased level of rainfall intensity in those areas (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Projected Change of Average Temperature in Indonesia in 2100 based on scenario A2

B.    The Change in Rainfall Intensity and Pattern in the Islands of Indonesia

The change in regional climate pattern due to global warming is affecting the local rainfall pattern. Such change is setting in motion the potential danger of the tendency of high intensity rainfall during wet months and low intensity rainfall during transitional months. This condition will be even worse in the future by 2080s. Based on analysis conducted in Java – Bali regions, West Java is the most vulnerable region under such extreme condition

The result of analysis conducted by Boerdan Faqih (2004) using the monitoring results from the existing 210 rain stations as well as the comparison with the current averagerainfall intensity trend, it is noted that there has been trend of dwindling rainfall intensity in Java, Lampung, South Sumatera, South Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara. On the other hand, the trend of increasing rainfall intensity is found in Borneo and North Sulawesi (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Projected Change of Rainfall in the Month of January

 C. Indonesia’s Sea Level Rise

The increase in the Greenhouse gases concentrate which affects global warming will indirectly affect the sea level rise through a process called thermosteric. The increase of Greenhouse gases concentrate is responsible for sea level temperature rise. The sea level temperature rise affects the expansion of sea water volume, whereby each degree Celcius increase will cause the sea level to rise by 0.2 – 0.4 m (Knutti et al, 2000). Furthermore, the sea level temperature rise will also have an affect on the defrosting of glaciers and icebergs

in Greenland and the Antartics. Indonesia’s sea-water territory has been experiencing sea level rise trend averaging 0.6 – 0.8 cm/year.

Figure 3 . Estimated Sea Level Rise in Indonesia Oceans Based on the Dynamic Increase of Ice Melting Model Post IPCC AR4

Based on Figure 3, Sea Level Rise will reach 175 cm in 2100 relative to the Sea Level Height in 2000. Meantime, Sea Level Height will rise by 52.5 cm in 2030, will rise by 87.5 cm in year 2050, and will rise by 140 cm by 2080. This trend elevates the increase of abrasion, erosion and sea water inundation, which is not only caused by the Sea Level Rise, but also by the storm wave, high and low tide by the moon’s and sun’s gravity, as well as the extreme climate such as La Nina which is modulated by the high Sea Level Rise.

Moreover, the inconsistent Sea Level Rise in Indonesia, whereby the rise in Pacific Ocean’s level is greater than that of Indian Ocean, has effects on the seasonal flow pattern, Indonesia Through Flow (ITF), the increase in erosion, the change of coastal line, and the reduction of wetland ecosystem. The change of ITF affects the regional climate change pattern in Indonesia such that the local rainfall pattern also changes. Besides, the reduction of wetland ecosystem will impact the coastal ecosystem and as well as increases the intrusion of sea water into the coastal aquifer.

Climate Change Scenarios Bulukamba

As explained above, climate change scenario of sea level rise is twice more rapidly on period 1993-2010 than period of 1901-2010. Based on this scenario, the highest sea level rise is located in east Indonesia, include Sulawesi with rate 5-8 mm per year. This scenario will have impact such as drown of small islands, increased flooding, coastal erosion, sea water intrusion and changes in ecological processes in coastal areas. This change will also have an impact on socio-economic aspects of coastal communities such as loss of infrastructure, decline in ecological values, and the economic activities.  

In ecological area, Marine Science Diving Club Hasanuddin University found coral bleaching almost 50% in Bulukumba area (2016). They estimate coral bleaching caused by rising sea surface temperatures. The observation was conducted as a follow up to a release by the National Ocean Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which showed seawater temperatures in some parts of Indonesia, including the Makassar Strait, would continue rising this year.

Beside the rising of sea surface temperature (SST), coral reef damaged also caused by human activities. According to a study by Hasanuddin University’s Coral Reef Reasearch Centre in Makassar, coral reef destruction in South Sulawesi has reached alarming heights and today poses a real threat to the ongoing livelihoods of regional fisherman. With some 70% of the 5,000 km2 of reefs destroyed, this has also caused great losses to the state via the fishery sector (Hajramurni 2007). The worst-affected reefs are around Bulukumba regency, with a destruction level of 100% followed by Pangkajene Islands (Pangkep) at 97%, Sinjai at 86% and Selayar, which encompasses the Taka Bonerate undersea national park, at 70%. The damage is also due to illegal fishing using explosives, poison and trawl nets, as well as sea pollution and poorly managed marine tourism. In some areas converted of mangrove forest to fish-fond in Ujung Loe sub-district has made these areas more vulnerable. 

The combination of climate change impacts and vulnerable of coastal area in Bulukumba made this region more vulnerable. The several sectors damaged caused this impacts. In every West Monsoon Season (November-Maret) and East Monsoon Season (April-October), this area affected by tidal wave, hurricane, abrasion and sea tide. These threats disturb their infrastructures such houses, roads, and economic activities such fisherman, fishpond, seaweed farming, ecotourism, sea transportations for trading, and healthy such source of fresh water and diseases. 

Several disasters happened that damaged of infrastructures. In 2016, tidal wave and abrasion reached 4 metres has damaged dozen houses in some coastal areas such Ela-Ela, Ujung Bulu sub-district. At the same time, hundreds of houses were damaged by tidal wave also at Ujung Loe and Ujung Bulu.  

Dozens of houses damaged by whirlwind in 2016. As much as 41 of the houses at Batang Village, Bonto Bahari sub-district and 27 houses at Tanuntung Village, Herlang sub-district. Head of BPBD says this caused by uncertain drought effected El-Nino. In July 2017, heavy rainfall and hurricane damaged houses at Benteng Palio and Topanda Villages. The wind also broke down the gabare at Ujung Bulu sub-district. 

Extreme climate also effecting economic activities of coastal communities. In December 2017, the stronght wind and tidal wave reached 3-4 metres caused fisherman did not goes to the sea. The Fisherman in Ujung Bulu become a seaweed farmer or a daily wage. They predicted they will go to sea for fishing on April 2018. In June 2016, Fisherman in Bulukumba cannot went to the sea for fishing, they choose to take care of seaweed because of tidal wave and strong wind. However, seaweed activities also effected by climate anomaly, with heavy rainfall make sea water become more fresh at depth of 3-5 metres is not suitable for seaweed farming. 

On May 2017, BPBD evacuated 50 households caused by flood disaster that affected Bulukumba. On October 2017, fresh water crisis happened in Bulukumba caused by long drought. BPBD of Bulukumba had allocated fresh water to some sub-district such as Gantarang, Herlang, Bonto Bahari and Bonto Tiro. 

Disaster cases in Bulukumba regency as cited above affected likely by climate change impacts. Meteorology Climatology and Geophysics Agency of Indonesia (BMKG) released weather temperature maps in 2016 on normal condition (1981-2010) showed that in 2016 was the hottest year a long history. BMKG observed same with pronouncement of World Meteorology Organization (WMO) showed that in 2016 has rate temperature 1,2 °C (for South Sulawesi area reached 1.26 °C) is more highest than normal (that is rate in 1981-2010). Moreover, anomaly of temperature in 2016 exceeded anomaly of temperature in 2015 that reached 1°C. As known that anomaly of weather temperature in 2015 affected by El-Nino phenomena caused long drought in Indonesia, while in 2016 there is no El-Nino, that condition indicate that greenhouse gas shows the effect on weather temperature. 

It is also parallel with analysis of Indonesia BMKG (July, 2017) released analysis sea surface temperature (SST) in Bulukumba showed positive value that sea condition more warm and potentially evaporation process for making rain clouds around Bulukumba’s area. One analysis method was Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) showed negative values that signed clouds dense. Based on these analysis, showed that SST and OLR influential whirlwind disaster in Bulukumba

Institutional context Of Indonesia and Bulukamba

Indonesia is very responsive about integrated climate change issues into national development plan. For that, Indonesia has established some regulations as follows; National Adaptation Action Plan on Climate Change (RAN-API) by National Development Planning Agency in 2012. RAN-API is an important input into the development of the Government Annual Plan as well as the National Medium-Term Development Plan for 2015-2019 (RPJMN) to be more responsive of climate change effects. One of the important targets is in coastal and small island sector. In this action plan, gender mainstreaming also become consideration and priority areas for integrating in climate change adaptation.

Moreover, there is Laws of Indonesian Republic about management of coastal areas and small islands on the Act No. 27/2007, in conjunction with Act 1/2014. The purpose of this Act is to protect, conserve, rehabilitate, use, and enrich resources in coastal areas and small islands in a sustainable way, as well as empower communities living in coastal areas and small islands. 

Other regulation is the Ministry of Environment and Forestry Regulation Number 33/2016 on Guidelines for the Preparation of Climate Change Adaptation Action. The regulation aims to provide guidelines for local governments and related stakeholders in preparing climate change adaptation actions and to integrate them into local development plan and/or specific sectors, as mentioned in the Article 3, section 1: about coastal and small island (point f), and in the Article 4: about steps for making adaptation action plan, among others: (a) Identification of target areas and/or specific sectors, and issues about climate change impact; (b) Arrange the vulnerability and climate risk assessment; (c) Arrange the options of adaptation action on climate change; (d) Priority setting adaptation action on climate change; (e) Integrate the climate change adaptation action into policies, plans, and/or development program.

Government of Bulukumba has adopting the Climate Change Adaptation Action into Mid Term Regional Development Plan. Several important missions as follows; Land-use planning, environmental and natural resources preservation, culture and disaster risk reduction. There are two strategies; (1) strengthened cooperation among local government and institutions related to disaster risk reduction, and (2) increasing facilities and infrastructure to support disaster preparedness. 

There are some activities to support this mission, which are; (1) rehabilitation of source of a fresh-water and rehabilitation of border river; (2) establish the five community groups to manage the Climate Village named ‘Kampung Iklim’; (3) rehabilitation of five coastal areas with mangrove, coral reef rehabilitations and transplantation, and make one fish-breeding center; (4) provide for a potential disaster database of ten sub-districts in Bulukumba to increase awareness of disaster control efforts.

To support this mission, several agencies have sectoral strategic plan. Environmental Agency focus on strategic plan such as; (1) Rehabilitation of source of a fresh-water and rehabilitation of border river; (2) Establish the five community groups to manage the Climate Village named ‘Kampung Iklim’; (3) Rehabilitation of five coastal areas with mangrove, coral reef rehabilitations and transplantation, and make one fish-breeding center. For Climate Village program, government of Bulukumba by Environmental Agency actively socialize this program entire Bulukumba regency. This campaign started in Salassae Village that get appreciation from central government in 2017. This event also declarated ‘Climate Village Forum’, as a place to communicate and coordinate in environmental sector, especially to face impact of climate change by adaptation and mitigation actions. 

Government of Bulukumba also established Disaster Regional Management Agency (BPBD). This agency also has strategic plan that is provide for a potential disaster database of ten sub-districts in Bulukumba to increase awareness of disaster control efforts. This agency can provide data from community level and regional level and coordinate to apply disaster risk mitigation by communities. 

For Marine and Fisheries Agency of Bulukumba. Since 2017, focus development of this sectoral plan are; (1), To develop production infrastructure to support food souveregenity, (2). To make coastal and sea-use zoning plan, (3). To develop coastal and small islands area, (4) To Handle Ilegal, Unreported, Unregulated (IUU) Fishing. (5). Development of fishing facilities, cultivation and prossecing. (6). Develop of Marine Services. 

At the community level, with the Law No. 6/2014 about Village Regulation. The wide opportunity for sustainability funding and actions are provided if the climate change adaptation is integrated into village development planning. It is mean they can take realistic actions by themselves and for themselves. 

For the socio-economic, to empower the woman group, government of Bulukumba also consistent   to promote growth and economic equality of various sectors and areas. The sectoral strategies are: (1) Increasing source of poor people’s income; (2) Empowering business groups of poor people; (3) Increasing quality of micro, small, and medium business productions. (3) Increasing quality of gender mainstreaming, protection women and child, along with social welfare; (4) Conducting the integrated development plan, participative, accountable, and gender responsive. 

Socio Economic Development Bulukamba

The main income from Bulukumba’s Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) relies on agriculture and plantation. The ocean and fisheries sector not yet become source of its GRDP. Meanwhile the economic activities of those coastal sub-districts area dominated in fishery catching, Aquaculture (fishpond) and seaweed farming.

Central Statistics Agency of Bulukumba data shows that total population of the district in 2016 is 410.485 people; including 194.013 men and 216.472 women. The increasing of female population is influenced by the number of male who go work outside the region due to poverty. Data from Integrated Data Base for Social Protection Program” (TNP2K-Bappeda Bulukumba, 2015) shows that Bulukumba has 35.545 poor households or about 127.516 poor people. Out of this number, there are 25.166 poor households or about 90.112 poor people live in the coastal areas. The female households are 10.452 heads in Bulukumba, and 7.658 of them live in the coastal area. Furthermore, the poor women live in coastal area are 48.942 from total 66.740 poor women in Bulukumba. This data concludes that most of poor people live in the coastal area and dominated by female who keep the household while most of the male work outside the district and others are fisherman. 

The daily activities of woman limited to preparing their husband’s needs (for those husbands who stay at Bulukumba), selling fish and drying seaweed and not involve in development decision making within their villages. They do not have more portions for increasing their creative economic and micro business. Meanwhile, there is a potential to develop and enhance women’s role in economic and and climate change adaptation and mitigation actions, since within the Buginese culture, woman’s role is significant as the pillar of the family and culture.

Although women’s role in community and culture is quite strong, they are very vulnerable at the moment women’s group have not involve in climate change mitigation and adaptation actions. This is due to the lack of knowledge in climate change issues in general and its impact to their wellbeing. The climate change is not being mainstream to the development planning at the village and district level.

Climate Context Of Indonesia and South Sulawesi

As an archipelago lies between Asia and Australia continents, Indonesia is very prone to climate change impact. As the current studies show that the surface temperature tends to raise 1°C in 20 Century. Some studies of several organizations in Indonesia found that climate change affected ecological damage and livelihood of the poor people.  

As part of Southeast Asia, Indonesia has feature a complex range of terrains and land-sea contrast. Across this region, temperature has been increasing at rate of 0.14°C to 0.20°C per decade since the 1960s coupled with a rising number of hot days and warm nights, and a decline in cooler weather (IPCC, 2014). 

Several large-scale phenomena influence the climate of this region. The impact of Madden-Julian Oscilation (MJO) have been no obvious trends in extreme rainfall indices in Indonesia, except evidence of a decrease in some areas in annual rainfall and an increase in the ratio of the wet to dry season rainfall (Aldrian and Djamil, IPCC, 2014). The impact of Indian Ocean Dipole pattern is associated with droughts in Indonesia. It is more prominent in eastern Indonesia. In the equatorial Indian Ocean, coral isotropic records off Indonesia indicate a reduced Sea Surface Temperature (SST) warming and salinity during the 20th century (Abram et al, IPCC 2014). 

An expert, Sofian (2011) explained that rate of sea level rise since mid 19 centuries is more biggest, compared with rate since two millenium before. Since period 1901-2010, rate of sea level rise reached 0,19 metre. Rate of sea level rise is twice more rapidly on period 1993-2010 than period of 1901-2010. Based on this scenario, the highest sea level rise is located in east Indonesia, include Sulawesi with rate 5-8 mm per year. 

Global climate change estimated will be affecting coastal community in various part of the world.  One thing that will be changed are acceleration to sea level rise which will have an impact such as drown of small islands, increased flooding, coastal erosion, sea water intrusion and changes in ecological processes in coastal areas. Changes in these biological aspects will also have an impact on socio-economic aspects of coastal communities such as loss of infrastructure, decline in ecological values, and the economic value of coastal resources (Klein & Nicholls, 1999). 

Socio economic development also influences the capacity to adapt. Poor people in urban informal and rural areas settlements, of which there are about 1 billion worldwide, are particularly vulnerable to weather and climate impacts. The top five nation classified by population in coastal low-lying areas are developing and newly industrialized countries; Bangladesh, China, Vietnam, India, and Indonesia (McGranahan et al., 2007; Bollman et al., 2010; Jongman et al., 2012). 

Indonesia as an archipelago has 18.306 total islands with the coastal line reached 95.181 km. The inhabitants of Indonesia who live in this area are 60% from the total population, or about 160 million people. The economic development and activities are relied on with the coastal resources on this area. Most of Indonesian who lives in the coastal area dependence to the marine natural resources for their main income, as well as South Sulawesi Province.

South Sulawesi, Bulukumba Regency

South Sulawesi inhabited by Buginese who known as the ‘sailor tribe’. As a region of East Indonesia, South Sulawesi become an important area for coastal and ocean economic development. The coastline of this province is 1.937 km with the sea area of 266.877 km2. More than half of its districts, exactly 2/3 of 24 districts, have coastal and sea areas. 

One of them is Bulukumba Regency. Bulukumba is located in south edge of South Sulawesi, where 7 of its 10 sub-districts are located in the coastal area. Bulukumba’s coastline is 128 km long that covers the seven sub-districts, those are Gantarang (10 km), Ujung Bulu (11,5 km), Ujung Loe (11,5 km), Bonto Bahari (48,2 km), Bonto Tiro (10,6 km), Herlang (16 km) and Kajang (20,2 km).


Areas with the highest rainfall are in the northwest and eastern of region while in the middle region has moderate rainfall while the southern part low of rainfall. Rainfall in Bulukumba Regency as follows; Rainfall between 800-1500 mm/year, include Ujung Bulu, Gantarang and a part of Ujung Loe and most of Bonto Bahari. Between 1500-2000 mm/year covering Gantarang, part of Rilau Ale, Ujung Loe, Kindang, Bulukumpa, Bonto Tiro, Kajang, Herlang. 

Emisi Karbon dan Pemanasan Global

Emisi kebakaran CO2 adalah sumber CO2 atmosfer yang penting dan berkontribusi secara substansial terhadap efek rumah kaca global. CO2 merupakan gas tidak berwarna, tidak berbau dan gas asam yang ringan. Karbondioksida disebut juga gas asam karbon, sering disebut udara campuran. Meskipun jumlah gas ini merupakan bagian yang sangat kecil dari seluruh gas yang ada di atmosfer (hanya sekitar 0,04% dalam basis molar secara alami), namun ia memiliki peran yang penting dalam menyokong kehidupan. Jika keberadaannya yang tidak seimbang akan membuat fenomena alam yang mampu merusak bumi seperti melubangi lapisan Ozon, efek rumah kaca, cahaya & panas matahari yang masuk kebumi tidak dapat di lepas ke luar angkasa secara kosmik, meningkatkan suhu bumi secara global beberapa derajat sehingga bisa mencairkan es kutub sehingga meningkatkan permukaan air laut. Indonesia adalah salah satu penghasil gas rumah kaca terbesar di dunia, terutama karena konversi hutannya dan kebakaran lahan gambut yang kaya karbon (Gambar 1).

Gambar 1. Total Emisi termasuk dari Perubahan Penggunaan Lahan

dan Kehutanan di 5 negara emiter (RRC, AS, EU, India,

Indonesia).Emisi Indonesia pada tahun 2014 sebesar 2 470

MtCO₂e‍. (Sumber peta: http://cait.wri.org/)

Oleh karena itu, the 2ndWorld Parliamentary Forum On Sustainable Development (WPFSD) 2018, delegasi Indonesia menyampaikan bahwa Indonesia berkomitmen menurunkan emisi CO2 sampai 26 persen dari tingkat 2005 pada tahun 2020 mendatang.

Gambar 2. Estimasi emisi karbon dari kebakaran tahunan di Equatorial

Asia (Indonesia dan sebagian Malaysia dan Brunai Darussalam)

Kebakaran hutan dan lahan pada saat 2015 merupakan salah satu sumber terjadinya emisi CO2 berkontribusi besar meningkatkan konsentrasi emisi di Indonesia (Gambar 2). Pasca 2015, beberapa peneliti mencoba menduga emisi CO2 pada tahun 2015 berdasarkan pendekatan area terbakar dan data pemantauan satelit serta model global. Gambar 3 menunjukkan bahwa mayoritas emisi kebakaran 2015 di Indonesia berasal dari kebakaran gambut, sekitar lebih dari 50% (van der Werf dkk, 2017). Menurut Huijnen dkk (2016),dan Nechita-Banda dkk (2018), emisi C dari karhutla di Indonesia adalah lebih dari 600 Tg CO2 selama bulan September - Oktober 2015, sedangkan Kalimantan (termasuk sebagian Sulawesi) termasuk wilayah yang paling tinggi melepaskan CO dibandingkan Sumatera dan bagian timur Indonesia lainnya, berkisar 0.5 - 2 Tg CO per hari.

Gambar 3. Konsentrasi CO2 tahun 2014 -2018

(sumber:https://www.bmkg.go.id/)

 Hal ini sejalan dengan penelitian Yulianti dan Hayasaka (2013) sebelumnya yang menunjukkan bahwa daerah yang paling rawan kebakaran di Indonesia adalah mayoritas area lahan gambut di bagian selatan Kalimantan. Haris dkk (2015) juga menunjukkan bahwa Kalimantan Tengah termasuk dalam 3 (tiga) besar provinsi yang memiliki tingkat emisi tertinggi di Indonesia, dimana lebih dari 90% berasal dari sektor yang berbasis lahan.

  

Menurut beberapa data, konsentrasi CO2 mengalami peningkatan di atmosfer. Karbon dioksida adalah bahan kimia khusus karena transparan untuk radiasi matahari dan menyerap radiasi infra merah. Dengan demikian, keberadaan dioxode karbon di atmosfer kita memungkinkan sinar matahari menembus ke permukaan tetapi menghambat emisi radiasi inframerah ke ruang angkasa. Konsekuensi dari penyerapan radiasi inframerah oleh karbon dioksida di atmosfer adalah bahwa Bumi jauh lebih hangat (Gambar 4).

Gambar 4. Dampak GHG Terhadap Pemanasan Bumi

 Keadaan ini bisa memiliki arti positif atau negatif. Segi positifnya adalah suhu yang hangat menyebabkan bumi tidak mungkin memasuki jaman es kembali. Contohnya, pada akhir Zaman Es terakhir, 10.000 tahun lalu, karbondioksida di atmosfer naik drastis saat suhu semakin menghangat. Tetapi poin negatifnya adalah suhu yang semakin hangat bisa berakibat pada mencairnya es abadi di kutub dan berdampak pada peningkatan muka air laut. Bahkan Notz & Stroeve (2016) mengungkapkan bumi mungkin mendekati ambang CO2 untuk melelehkan es di Arktik dengan hilangnya beberapa glacier.